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blood sugar and pressure, observing renal (c) Uraemia
diet, medications to manage anaemia, This is a condition in which there is an
oedema, monitoring kidney function, abnormally high concentration of urea
dialysis and transplant in extreme failure. in the blood. It is a dangerous condition

that occurs when the kidney is no longer
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(b) Kidney stones (renal calculi) filtering substances from the blood. Uraemia
Kidney stones are hard deposits of may be caused by the formation of cysts
inorganic materials and organic substance in the kidney tubules. It may also be a
that crystalizes in the kidney. They lead result of reduction in blood supply to the
to pain when passing through the urinary glomeruli as a result of contraction of the
tract. They are formed in the pelvic region renal artery. The whole kidney shrinks and
of the kidney. They can be made up of blood flow is further impaired, leading to
uric acid, calcium oxalate or a mixture severe hypertension. Symptoms of uraemia
of calcium, magnesium and ammonium includes yellow colouration of the skin,
phosphates. Excessive consumption of itching of the skin, smelling of urine and
high-oxalate foods (e.g., spinach, nuts) nausea. This disorder may result into kidney
and sugar-sweetened beverages increases failure. Additionally, uraemia may lead to
the risk. Kidney stones may result into neurological disorders such as cognitive
obstruction of urine flow. Often there are impairment. Uraemia can be controlled
no symptoms of kidney stones unless the by taking a diet with low concentration of
stones move from their original position. salts especially sodium and potassium. The
When the stones move into the ureter they affected person should undergo dialysis in
cause severe pain which can be felt from order to remove excess urea in the blood.
the lower back. This may be accompanied Dialysis techniques, such as wearable
by vomiting and sweating. There may also artificial kidneys, have been developed to
be blood in the urine. Kidney stones can be improve patient quality of life.
detected by x-ray. Small stones may pass
down the ureter and out through the bladder (d) Urinary tract infections (UTIs)
without the need for treatment. Untreated UTI is an infection in any part of the urinary
kidney stones may lead to inflammation of system. It can be an infection of the kidneys,
the kidneys, a situation known as nephritis. bladder, ureters or urethra. In most cases
It may involve the tubules, glomeruli, and UTI affects the lower part of the urinary
tissue around these structures. Treatment tract. Urethritis is an infection of the urethra
of kidney stones involves drinking a large while cystitis is an infection of the bladder.
amount of water. The water can remove Cystitis is caused by bacteria Escherichia
small stones while larger stones can be coli or other infectious agents which pass
removed through surgery. Laser lithotripsy through the bladder to the ureter. Urethritis
and shock wave therapy have become more is caused by bacteria or viruses that may
effective in breaking down larger stones. enter through urethra opening. Women
experience more cases of urethritis because

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